Assignment: Leader Self-confidence
Assignment: Leader Self-confidence
Assignment: Leader Self-confidence
Assignment: Leader Self-confidence
Assignment: Leader Self-confidence
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Patterns created through expectations tend to persist. One long-term study of 500 students revealed that their standardized math test scores in the twelfth grade were influenced, in part, by the expectations that teachers had of their mathematical abilities in the sixth grade.56 David Berlew and Douglas Hall examined the careers of two groups of AT&T managers and found that new managers performed best if they worked for supervisors who had high but realis- tic expectations.57 These new employees internalized positive attitudes and stan- dards and were entrusted with greater responsibilities. Six years later, they were still highly productive. On the other hand, managers who worked for bosses who expected too much or too little performed poorly throughout the test period. These workers either failed to develop high standards or didn’t get recognition for the work that they did complete. As a result, they may have decided to per- form at minimal levels. Berlew and Hall conclude that the first 12–18 months are critical to the career success of any new employee. Patterns set during this initial period often continue throughout a worker’s tenure at a company.
There can be little doubt that leader expectations exert a long-lasting influence on performance. Yet, it would be a mistake to conclude that the Pyg- malion effect has a dramatic impact on all followers. Disadvantaged groups (those stereotyped as low achievers) tend to benefit most from positive expec- tations, as do those who lack a clear sense of their abilities or find themselves in a novel situation (new hires, for example). Men seem to be more influenced by the expectancies of their managers than are women.58
Two characteristics of leaders moderate the impact of their expectations. The first is their level of self-esteem. Even when placed with subordinates with superior abilities, some leaders fail to communicate positive expectations because they lack confidence in their own abilities. One study of sales manag- ers at a Metropolitan Life Insurance agency demonstrates the important rela-
Hackman-Johnson 6E.book Page 260 Tuesday, March 12, 2013 12:54 PM
Leadership in Organizations 261
tionship between leader self-confidence and the Pygmalion effect. Sales agents were randomly divided into high, average, and poor performance groups. Sales of the high performer unit dramatically increased, while sales of the weakest unit declined and members dropped out. Significantly, the performance of the “average” group went up because the leader of this group refused to accept the fact that he and his sales force were any less capable than the supposedly out- standing sales unit. The superior manager’s confidence in his or her ability to develop and stimulate high levels of performance reaffirms the belief that expectations will be met. Doubts about one’s ability lead to lowered expecta- tions and less confident interactions.59
A second characteristic of leaders that moderates the influence of the Pyg- malion effect is the level of expectations. As we saw in the case of the AT&T managers, expectations must be high but also realistic. Setting standards too low does not challenge the abilities of followers, since there is little satisfac- tion to be gained by fulfilling minimal expectations. Yet, setting expectations too high guarantees failure and may start a negative self-fulfilling prophecy. Having failed once, the organization member expects to fail again. Goal-set- ting theorists argue that high performance comes from setting specific, chal- lenging objectives, not vague, easy ones. (Being told to “try your best” is not very motivating, for instance.) Employees must be adequately trained for their tasks and then rewarded when they reach their targets.60
We are not only our brother’s keeper; in countless large and small ways, we are our brother’s maker.
—Bonaro Overstreet
To summarize, followers often perform up to expectations, whether in the nursing home, the classroom, the military, or the corporation. Leaders must have confidence in their own abilities and set realistic goals for followers in order for the positive Pygmalion effect to operate. However, the confidence that leaders have in themselves and their followers will have no impact on group behavior unless group members know that this confidence exists. Lead- ers must clearly communicate their expectations to followers. With this in mind, we turn now to a description of how expectations are communicated.
The Communication of Expectations Telling others that they have ability, offering them compliments, and say-
ing that you expect great things from them communicates high expectations. Subordinates also get the message that leaders have high or low expectations of them even when expectancies are not explicitly stated. Expectations are communicated through four important channels.61
1. Climate. Climate refers to the type of social and emotional atmosphere leaders create for followers. When dealing with people whom they like, leaders act in a supportive, accepting, friendly, and encouraging manner. Nonverbal cues play a major role in creating climates. Communication
You must proofread your paper. But do not strictly rely on your computer’s spell-checker and grammar-checker; failure to do so indicates a lack of effort on your part and you can expect your grade to suffer accordingly. Papers with numerous misspelled words and grammatical mistakes will be penalized. Read over your paper – in silence and then aloud – before handing it in and make corrections as necessary. Often it is advantageous to have a friend proofread your paper for obvious errors. Handwritten corrections are preferable to uncorrected mistakes.
Use a standard 10 to 12 point (10 to 12 characters per inch) typeface. Smaller or compressed type and papers with small margins or single-spacing are hard to read. It is better to let your essay run over the recommended number of pages than to try to compress it into fewer pages.
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Likewise, large type, large margins, large indentations, triple-spacing, increased leading (space between lines), increased kerning (space between letters), and any other such attempts at “padding” to increase the length of a paper are unacceptable, wasteful of trees, and will not fool your professor.
- The paper must be neatly formatted, double-spaced with a one-inch margin on the top, bottom, and sides of each page. When submitting hard copy, be sure to use white paper and print out using dark ink. If it is hard to read your essay, it will also be hard to follow your argument.ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CLASS
Discussion Questions (DQ)
- Initial responses to the DQ should address all components of the questions asked, include a minimum of one scholarly source, and be at least 250 words.
- Successful responses are substantive (i.e., add something new to the discussion, engage others in the discussion, well-developed idea) and include at least one scholarly source.
- One or two sentence responses, simple statements of agreement or “good post,” and responses that are off-topic will not count as substantive. Substantive responses should be at least 150 words.
- I encourage you to incorporate the readings from the week (as applicable) into your responses.
Weekly Participation
- Your initial responses to the mandatory DQ do not count toward participation and are graded separately.
- In addition to the DQ responses, you must post at least one reply to peers (or me) on three separate days, for a total of three replies.
- Participation posts do not require a scholarly source/citation (unless you cite someone else’s work).
- Part of your weekly participation includes viewing the weekly announcement and attesting to watching it in the comments. These announcements are made to ensure you understand everything that is due during the week.
APA Format and Writing Quality
- Familiarize yourself with APA format and practice using it correctly. It is used for most writing assignments for your degree. Visit the Writing Center in the Student Success Center, under the Resources tab in LoudCloud for APA paper templates, citation examples, tips, etc. Points will be deducted for poor use of APA format or absence of APA format (if required).
- Cite all sources of information! When in doubt, cite the source. Paraphrasing also requires a citation.
- I highly recommend using the APA Publication Manual, 6th edition.
Use of Direct Quotes
- I discourage overutilization of direct quotes in DQs and assignments at the Masters’ level and deduct points accordingly.
- As Masters’ level students, it is important that you be able to critically analyze and interpret information from journal articles and other resources. Simply restating someone else’s words does not demonstrate an understanding of the content or critical analysis of the content.
- It is best to paraphrase content and cite your source.
LopesWrite Policy
- For assignments that need to be submitted to LopesWrite, please be sure you have received your report and Similarity Index (SI) percentage BEFORE you do a “final submit” to me.
- Once you have received your report, please review it. This report will show you grammatical, punctuation, and spelling errors that can easily be fixed. Take the extra few minutes to review instead of getting counted off for these mistakes.
- Review your similarities. Did you forget to cite something? Did you not paraphrase well enough? Is your paper made up of someone else’s thoughts more than your own?
- Visit the Writing Center in the Student Success Center, under the Resources tab in LoudCloud for tips on improving your paper and SI score.
Late Policy
- The university’s policy on late assignments is 10% penalty PER DAY LATE. This also applies to late DQ replies.
- Please communicate with me if you anticipate having to submit an assignment late. I am happy to be flexible, with advance notice. We may be able to work out an extension based on extenuating circumstances.
- If you do not communicate with me before submitting an assignment late, the GCU late policy will be in effect.
- I do not accept assignments that are two or more weeks late unless we have worked out an extension.
- As per policy, no assignments are accepted after the last day of class. Any assignment submitted after midnight on the last day of class will not be accepted for grading.
Communication
- Communication is so very important. There are multiple ways to communicate with me:
- Questions to Instructor Forum: This is a great place to ask course content or assignment questions. If you have a question, there is a good chance one of your peers does as well. This is a public forum for the class.
- Individual Forum: This is a private forum to ask me questions or send me messages. This will be checked at least once every 24 hours.
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