SHORT ANSWER ASSESSMENT NURS 6630

SHORT ANSWER ASSESSMENT NURS 6630

A Sample Answer For the Assignment: SHORT ANSWER ASSESSMENT NURS 6630

1. In 4 or 5 sentences, describe the anatomy of the basic unit of the nervous system, the neuron. Include each part of the neuron and a general overview of electrical impulse conduction, the pathway it travels, and the net result at the termination of the impulse. Be specific and provide examples.

According to Javaid et al. (2020), the human brain comprises over 100 billion distinct neurons. The neuron’s cell body harbors the nucleus and serves as the point of attachment for both the dendrites and axons of the neuron. The term “soma” is sometimes used to refer to the cell body, while axon clusters, commonly referred to as nerves in some contexts, can be found throughout the body in various locations. Neurons can interact with one another even when they are separated by large distances, which is made possible by the fact that they contain dendrites and axons. Furthermore, owing to the mechanism of electrical conduction intrinsic to neurons, nerve impulses can propagate at a remarkable pace, marked by a transient electrical oscillation that traverses from the neuronal soma, through its dendrites, and culminates at the terminal end of the axon.

• Answer the following (listing is acceptable for these questions):
  • What are the major components that make up subcortical structures?
    • Basal ganglia: Pertains to a cluster of subcortical nuclei that are primarily accountable for regulating motor control (Wilfrid Jänig, 2022). Additionally, they play a crucial role in executive functions, motor learning, and emotional and behavioral regulation.
    • Limbic structure: The limbic system is responsible for the regulation of motivation, mood, learning, and memory through its intricate network of structures and interconnected regions(Wilfrid Jänig, 2022). The interface between the subcortical structures and the cerebral cortex is located within the limbic system. The limbic system exerts its influence on the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system
    • Thalamic structures: The structure in question comprises four distinct components, namely the thalamus, epithalamus, subthalamus, and hypothalamus. Each of the aforementioned structures plays a crucial role in the survival and optimal operation of the human body (Wilfrid Jänig, 2022). Therefore, it is imperative to familiarize oneself with their anatomy. 
    • Cerebellar: The cerebellum is a neuroanatomical structure situated in the posterior cranial fossa, superior and posterior to the pontomedullary junction, where the spinal cord merges with the brainstem. The aforementioned structure is a significant subcortical entity that has an impact not only on motor function but also potentially on cognitive and emotional processes (Wilfrid Jänig, 2022).                  
  • Which component plays a role in learning, memory, and addiction?

According to Wilfrid Janig (2022), the limbic structure contributes to the capacity of the human body to acquire new information and retain it. Furthermore, it assumes a crucial function in the control of cognitive attention and behaviors that are addictive.

Having Trouble Meeting Your Deadline?

Get your assignment on SHORT ANSWER ASSESSMENT NURS 6630  completed on time. avoid delay and – ORDER NOW

Do My Paper

• What are the two key neurotransmitters located in the nigra striatal region of the brain that play a major role in motor control?
  • Dopamine: While the activity of dopaminergic cells cannot directly dictate movements, a recent study conducted on humans has indicated that the consistent levels of dopamine present in the dorsal striatum may contribute to the facilitation of regular motion by encoding the sensitivity to the energy expenditure of a movement (Skelin et al., 2019). This implicit signal can be interpreted as a “motor motivational” cue.
  • Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA): It is widely distributed throughout the nervous system and plays a crucial role in inhibiting the transmission of signals. It is essential for regulating movement, both in the cortex and subcortical regions of the brain.
• In 3 or 4 sentences, explain how glial cells function in the central nervous system. Be specific and provide examples.

The phrase “glial cells” may refer to several different kinds of glial cells, including astrocytes, Schwann cells, oligodendrocytes, and microglial cells all of which have a unique role in ensuring that the brain continues to operate normally (Yang & Zhou, 2019). Astrocytes are responsible for controlling blood flow, as well as supplying neurons with mitochondria and the components necessary to construct neurotransmitters, which are the driving force behind neuronal metabolism. Schwann cells play an essential role in the development, maintenance, functioning, and regeneration of peripheral nerves. Oligodendrocytes are chiefly accountable for the production and upkeep of the myelin sheath that envelops axons within the nervous system while microglia are enduring brain cells that govern brain maturation, the safeguarding of neural networks, and the recuperation from injuries.

• The synapse is an area between two neurons that allows for chemical communication. In 3 or 4 sentences, explain what part of the neurons are communicating with each other and in which direction does this communication occur? Be specific.

When an action potential is generated at the chemical synapse, the neuron at the presynaptic cleft is stimulated, which results in the release of neurotransmitters, which are the molecules that are responsible for transporting information being propagated from the presynaptic gap to the postsynaptic cleft, which is where it is accepted by another cell. The dendrite of the receiving neuron is the one that is responsible for receiving the message from the axon terminal of the transmitting neuron. Because one axon may create synapses on a large number of postsynaptic cells, it can interact with a large number of cells (Stadelmann et al., 2019). As a consequence of this, a single neuron may receive information from the other neurons since it is capable of receiving millions of synaptic inputs from a wide variety of neurons that are responsible for transmitting presynaptic signals.

Struggling to Meet Your Deadline?

Get your assignment on SHORT ANSWER ASSESSMENT NURS 6630 done on time by medical experts. Don’t wait – ORDER NOW!

Meet my deadline

• In 3–5 sentences, explain the concept of “neuroplasticity.” Be specific and provide examples.

Neuroplasticity, commonly referred to aseither brain plasticityor neural plasticity, denotes a phenomenon wherein the brain encounters adaptive modifications in both functional and structural domains. The nervous system is capable of modifying its activity in response to both internal and external stimuli through the process of restoring its functions, pattern, or connections following events such as cerebrovascular incidents or traumatic brain injuries (Innocenti, 2022). These alterations may be helpful in that they lead to the regeneration of function after an injury, neutral in that there is no change, or pathologically detrimental with the resulting pathological consequences.The notion of neuroplasticity can be deconstructed into two primary mechanisms, which are functional reorganizationand collateral sprouting/neuronal regeneration.

References

Innocenti, G. M. (2022). Defining neuroplasticity. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-819410-2.00001-1

Javaid, M. A., Schellekens, H., Cryan, J. F., & Toulouse, A. (2020). Evaluation of Neuroanatomy Web Resources for Undergraduate Education: Educators’ and Students’ Perspectives. Anatomical sciences education, 13(2), 237-249. https://doi.org/10.1002/ase.1896

Skelin, I., Kilianski, S., & McNaughton, B. L. (2019). Hippocampal coupling with cortical and subcortical structures in the context of memory consolidation. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 160, 21–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2018.04.004

Stadelmann, C., Timmler, S., Barrantes-Freer, A., & Simons, M. (2019). Myelin in the Central Nervous System: Structure, Function, and Pathology. Physiological Reviews, 99(3), 1381–1431. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00031.2018

Wilfrid Jänig. (2022). The Integrative Action of the Autonomic Nervous System. Cambridge University Press.

Yang, Q.-Q., & Zhou, J.-W. (2019). Neuroinflammation in the central nervous system: Symphony of glial cells. Glia, 67(6), 1017–1035. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23571

Appropriate Drug Therapy for a Patient with MDD and a History of Alcohol Abuse

A combination of an antidepressant and a medicine that treats alcohol abuse would probably be the best pharmacological therapy for a patient with MDD and a history of alcohol consumption. As a first-line therapy for MDD, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors like fluoxetine or sertraline are advised. Naltrexone may also be administered to ease alcohol withdrawal symptoms and cravings.

In this patient, antidepressants such as monoamine oxidase inhibitors are not advised since they raise the risk of seizures. Within six to eight weeks of beginning treatment, the patient should see a reduction in symptoms, but it’s crucial to keep up the medication for at least six to twelve months to avoid relapse (Akbar et al., 2018).

Predictors of Late Onset Generalized Anxiety Disorder

1. A past history of depression
2. Ongoing medical issues
3. Trauma or abuse
4. A family history of anxiety disorders

 (Mohammadi et al., 2020).

Potential Neurobiology Causes of Psychotic Major Depression

1. Abnormal activity in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
2. Abnormal activity in the noradrenergic system
3. Abnormal activity in the serotonergic system
4. Abnormal activity in the dopaminergic system

(Dean et al., 2017).

Symptoms Required for Major Depression Episode to Occur

1. Persistent feelings of hopelessness or loss of vigor or pleasure
2. Exhaustion or lack of energy
3. Difficulty concentrating or making decisions
4. Changes in appetite or sleeping patterns
5. Feelings of guilt or inadequacy
6. Suicidal or death-related thoughts

(Pykel et al., 2022).

Classes of Drugs That Can Precipitate Insomnia

1. Beta blockers for example Propranolol
2. Corticosteroids for example prednisone
3. Antidepressant, for example

(Bonnet et al, .2021).

References

Akbar, M., Egli, M., Cho, Y. E., Song, B. J., & Noronha, A. (2018). Medications for alcohol use disorders: An overview. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 185, 64-85. doi:        10.1016/j.pharmthera.2017.11.007.

Mohammadi, M. R., Pourdehghan, P., Mostafavi, S. A., Hooshyari, Z., Ahmadi, N., & Khaleghi,             A. (2020). Generalized anxiety disorder: Prevalence, predictors, and comorbidity in   children and adolescents. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 73, 102234. Doi:            10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102234.

Dean, J., & Keshavan, M. (2017). The neurobiology of depression: An integrated view. Asian      Journal of Psychiatry, 27, 101-111. Doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2017.01.025

Paykel, E. S. (2022). Basic concepts of depression. Dialogues in clinical neuroscience, 10(3).      Doi: 10.31887/DCNS.2008.10.3/espaykel

Bonnet, M. H., & Arand, D. L. (2021). Risk factors, comorbidities, and consequences of   insomnia in adults. Up-to-date, Waltham, MA.

In 4 or 5 sentences, describe the anatomy of the basic unit of the nervous system, the neuron. Include each part of the neuron and a general overview of electrical impulse conduction, the pathway it travels, and the net result at the termination of the impulse. Be specific and provide examples.

The nervous system, or neuron has two manor parts including peripheral nervous system and central nervous system. The peripheral nervous system is composed of nerves that are attached to the spinal cord and spread to the entire body. On the other hand, the central nervous system is made up of spinal cord and the brain. The nervous system transmit electric impulses between the brain and other parts of the body through the nerve cells consisting of dendrites and axons (Ernsberger & Rohrer, 2018).

Dendrites and axons allow neurons to communicate across long distances through electric transmission. In the neuron system, electrical transmission takes place through the intercellular channels that provides alleyway of low resistance for the movement of currents between cells called “gap junction.” There are currents underlying the presynaptic action potential that generates a coupling potential within the postsynaptic cell.     

Click here to ORDER an A++ paper from our Verified MASTERS and DOCTORATE WRITERS: SHORT ANSWER ASSESSMENT NURS 6630

Answer the following (listing is acceptable for these questions):
What are the major components that make up the subcortical structures?

The subcortical structures refers to the group of different neural formation that are found deep within the brain. The major components of the subcortical structures include:

• Diencephalon
• Limbic structures
• Pituitary glands
• Basal ganglia

These structures are involved in various complex activities such as emotion, memory, pleasure, as well as hormone production.

Which component plays a role in learning, memory, and addiction?

• Limbic structures

What are the two key neurotransmitters located in the nigra striatal region of the brain that play a major role in motor control?

• pars reticulata (SNpr)
• pars compacta (SNpc)

In 3 or 4 sentences, explain how glia cells function in the central nervous system. Be specific and provide examples.

Glial cells in the central nervous system function by responding to and manipulating neurotransmission in different ways. They also impact both the consolidation and preservation of memories. Glia cells enhances the maintenance of homeostasis by forming myelin within the peripheral nervous system through the provision of support and protection for the neurons.

Also, through the formation of myelin, they are able to surround neurons and maintain or hold them in place, insulate them and provide oxygen and nutrients (Gershon & Nakamura, 2019).

In 3 or 4 sentences, explain what part of the neurons are communicating with each other and in which direction does this communication occur? Be specific.

Neurons often communicate and pass information from each other through synapses. In the process of transmitting information, when an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, neurotransmitter is released from the neuron into the synaptic cleft which is a 30nm gap found between the presynaptic axon terminal and the postsynaptic dendrite (Khan et al., 2019).

After electric impulses travels across the synaptic cleft, the transmitter will always attach to the neurotransmitter receptors within the postsynaptic side, and according to the neurotransmitter produced, e.g Na⁺, K⁺, Ca⁺ will move through the channels that span the membrane (Gershon & Nakamura, 2019).  

In 3–5 sentences, explain the concept of “neuroplasticity.” Be specific and provide examples.

Neural plasticity or neuroplasticity refers to the ability of the neural networks within the brain to change through reorganization and growth. The above changes often range from a single/individual neuron pathways, making new connections, to the systematic adjustments such as cortical remapping. One of the main example of neuroplasticity involve network and circuit changes that results from learning a new ability, practice, environmental influences, as well as the psychological stress. 

References

Ernsberger, U., & Rohrer, H. (2018). Sympathetic tales: subdivisons of the autonomic nervous system and the impact of developmental studies. Neural development, 13(1), 1-21. https://neuraldevelopment.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13064-018-0117-6

Khan, A. A., Lip, G. Y., & Shantsila, A. (2019). Heart rate variability in atrial fibrillation: The balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. European journal of clinical investigation, 49(11), e13174. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/eci.13174

Gershon, M. D., & Nakamura, H. (2019). Functional anatomy of the enteric nervous system. In Hirschsprung’s disease and allied disorders (pp. 31-76). Springer, Cham. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-15647-3_3

Neurons are information messengers with three main parts namely the cell body, axon, and the dendrites (Kringelbach et al., 2020). The cell body is made up of a nucleus and cytoplasm and produces protein required to construct other parts of the neuron. The axon, on the other hand, extends from the cell body and carries signals away from the cell body while the dendrites carry signals toward the cell body and have numerous synapses to receive the signal from nearby neurons.

Upon stimulation, neurons transmit an electrical impulse that passes through the dendrite, to the cell body, axon, axon terminal, and finally, the stimulus is passed (Kringelbach et al., 2020). At the axonal terminal, the axon releases neurotransmitters that depolarize neighboring cells through synapses and by binding to the membrane of the dendrite.

Subcortical Structures

Other structures within the brain are subcortical structures that act as information hubs for the nervous system. Their main role is to relay and modulate information circulating in different areas of the brain. They include the basal ganglia, limbic structures, pituitary gland, and the diencephalon (Malinowski, 2019). 

The limbic systems play a great role in learning and memory addiction.  The systems provide the anatomical substrate for emotions and motivated behaviors, including the circulatory for reward-related events and stress responses. Specifically, the hippocampus is used to mediate a cognitive/spatial form of memory.

It controls learning and declarative memory which covers the memory of facts and events (Malinowski, 2019).  The dorsal striatum also helps in memory by mediating the stimulus-response habit memory. Addiction on the other hand is linked to the limbic system through the orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus (Malinowski, 2019).

In line with motor control, the nigra striatal region offers two anatomically and functionally distinct portions knowns as the substantia nigra pars compacta and the substantia nigra pars reticulata.

Glial Cells

Other essential components in the central nervous system are the glial cells. They include the astrocytes whose role is to maintain the environment for neuronal signaling by controlling the level of neurotransmitters surrounding the synapses (Hirbec et al., 2020). Equally, oligodendrocytes wrap around the axons forming a protective layer called myelin sheath which enhances neuron signaling.

The cells also include microglia, ependymal cells, and radial glial whose roles are clearing dead cells or removing harmful toxins, maintaining homeostasis, and regenerating neurons and other glial cells like astrocytes and oligodendrocytes respectively.

Neuron Communication

Neurons communicate with each other through synaptic transmission. A chemical synapse is registered at the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron and the dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron (Malinowski, 2019).

The dendrite picks up signals and passes the signals down to the axon, into the axon terminals, and into the synapses. The role of the chemical synapse is to transform the electrical signal in the presynaptic cell’s axon into a chemical signal and back into an electrical signal in the postsynaptic cell.

Neuroplasticity

Brain plasticity denotes the ability of the brain to reorganize itself and form new neural connections in response to extrinsic or intrinsic stimuli.  Through axonal sprouting, the undamaged axons develop new nerve endings and reconnect neurons with severed or injured links (Mateos-Aparicio & Rodríguez-Moreno, 2019).

For instance, undamaged brain sites of stroke patients rewire themselves to take over functions of the damaged brain sites. Similarly, the undamaged axons sprout nerve endings that connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neural pathways (Mateos-Aparicio & Rodríguez-Moreno, 2019).   For example, exposing the brain to specific grammatical rules helps it process and develop language.

References

Hirbec, H., Déglon, N., Foo, L. C., Goshen, I., Grutzendler, J., Hangen, E., … & Escartin, C. (2020). Emerging technologies to study glial cells. Glia, 68(9), 1692-1728. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23780

Kringelbach, M. L., Cruzat, J., Cabral, J., Knudsen, G. M., Carhart-Harris, R., Whybrow, P. C., … & Deco, G. (2020). Dynamic coupling of whole-brain neuronal and neurotransmitter systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(17), 9566-9576. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1921475117

Malinowski, M. N. (2019). Anatomy of the brain and brain stem. In Deer’s Treatment of Pain (pp. 49-59). Springer, Cham.

Mateos-Aparicio, P., & Rodríguez-Moreno, A. (2019). The impact of studying brain plasticity. Frontiers in cellular neuroscience, 13, 66. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00066